Electrical appliance and telephone plugs are just the tip of the iceberg of technological incompatibility. They represent examples of the ways in which the same basic technologies have evolved under different regulatory and political regimes worldwide. Video and wireless communication systems of various countries are also incompatible with one another--although in both of these cases, the U.S. (with three incompatible wireless systems internally) seems to be the outlier, standing apart from many countries whose systems are compatible with one another. Other technological incompatibilities range from computers (Macs versus PCs) to screw threads and sizes (Don't try to use an inch-based wrench on a metric fastener!).

The problems of technological compatibility and standards are growing as globalization continues and will only get worse as trade and communication expands and more people travel internationally and expect to stay as connected in Bhutan as they are in Brooklyn. The barriers to improving compatibility, however, are political, not technological. Until national governments are willing to subordinate their own interests and powers to international technical bodies for such decisions, they are not likely to be resolved.

World Electric Guide, by Steve Kropla. A comprehensive source of information on electrical systems in use around the world, which shows the remarkable variety of plug types, voltages, and frequencies. Kropla's site, which is dedicated to helping world travellers, also has information on telephone systems.

Zera Gmbh, a German site, has similar information, as does Travel Oasis, an American site.

A European Commission posting (from 1994) rebutting the myth that the EC is planning to force Britain to switch from its current plug style to the one used on the continent.

"Solving the Riddle of International Electricity," courtesy of Walkabout Travel Gear of Moab, Utah. Lots of useful free information and a catalog of adapter plugs and related equipment, as well as a similar page on modems and telephone gear. 

An interesting selection of telephone conversion jacks from MiniMax Electronics, which also sells other related travel supplies and converts videotapes from one format to another.

Teleadapt -- worldwide mobile and wireless connectivity solutions.

The Universal Wireless Communications Consortium (UWCC), an organization of more than 100 wireless carriers seeking to promote TDMA-EDGE and WIN technology standards as an integrated worldwide sytem.

"Telecom Technology for Non-techies," by Bill Dalglish. Written primarily for investors, this detailed discussion of the development of wireless communications and the reasons for existing incompatibilities is useful for anyone wishing to understand this remarkably confusing situation.

"GSM and TDMA Cellular Networks," by Andy Dornan, Network Magazine (April 2000). If Dalglish doesn't help you understand the wireless world, this might do it.

World Television Standards, courtesy of FJM MultiMedia, Inc. 

World Wide TV Standards -- A Web Guide. Includes an explanation of why different countries have adopted different TV standards. (Interestingly, it is is due in part to differences resulting from 50 Hz versus 60 Hz electricity.)

Chart of worldwide TV systems, from TenLab. And another chart, plus a map showing systems in use in various countries.

Smith Fastener Company sells screws, nuts, bolts, etc., in both metric and inch sizes. See, also "The Nuts and Bolts of Bolting," by Joseph C. Dille, which explains pretty much what its title implies. Or you can buy the Metrinch, a set of tools that fits both metric and inch sizes (as seen on TV).

Description of a graduate seminar on technical compatibility standards, taught by Phil Agre at the University of California, San Diego (1998).

"Standards Push Technological Development and Increase International Competitiveness," a paper from the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research, July 31, 2000.